The present invention provides means to identify functional CD8+ T-cell epitopes in any protein of interest. The present invention further provides CD8+ T-cell epitopes of various proteins. In additional embodiments, the present invention provides epitopes suitable for use in prophylactic and/or therapeutic vaccines. In particularly preferred embodiments, the present invention provides modified epitopes suitable for use in prophylactic and/or therapeutic vaccines.In some preferred embodiments, the present invention provides means for the development of HPV vaccines, in particular multivalent vaccines for the prevention of infection with high-risk HPV strains. In particular, the present invention provides means to identify CD8+ T-cell epitopes in HPV strains such as HPV 16 and HPV 18. In additional embodiments, the present invention provides means for the development of therapeutic vaccines against high-risk HPV types that prevent the development of benign and/or malignant tumors in infected individuals. The present invention further provides epitopes suitable for use in prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines.